The Nubian spectrum: 3D geometric morphometric perspectives on Levallois core reduction at Tweefontein, South Africa

Prepared core technology is a defining feature of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in Africa, yet classic preferential Levallois cores are rare in many southern African assemblages. The recent identification of Nubian Levallois cores – a well-defined prepared core strategy – at sites in the South African interior raises broader questions about how current terminologies may be shaping interpretations of Levallois in southern Africa. The open-air site of Tweefontein presents a large Nubian core assemblage together with a range of other prepared core forms, providing a unique opportunity to assess how Nubian cores fit within the broader spectrum of prepared core variability. Using 3D geometric morphometrics and other quantitative methods, we examine variability in core morphology and technology and evaluate the distinctiveness of specific core types. Our results indicate that Nubian Levallois at Tweefontein represents one extreme of a continuum of preferential Levallois reduction, which occurs alongside distinct radial and opposed-platform reduction strategies. While the southern African Nubian cores are geographically, temporally and culturally separated from other instances of this technology, our approach demonstrates the broader potential of 3D analysis in moving beyond typological categories to capture local technological adaptations. This is especially relevant to the study of prepared cores in southern Africa, where currently heterogeneous terminology hinders meaningful comparison between assemblages.